Scientific Management Essay Example

Scientific Management Essay Example Scientific Management Essay Scientific Management Essay The chosen article that will be explored through this essay, by Locke, Edwin A. (1982) The Ideas of Frederick W. Taylor: An Evaluation. Academy of Management Review, 7(1). This main source believes that Taylor was the Founding father of Scientific Management, being his key principle, featuring the one best way. However in order to understand the reasoning and logic behind Taylors principles, one must understand the context of the time to make informed decision of the validity of the principles.Fifty percent of the sources believe that Taylor’s principles have transcended through time, forming the basis for modern day contemporary organizations, such as IBM. However the other half of the sources believe that Taylor’s principles have been a detriment to society, which have dehumanized the workforce, creating men as machines, believing that this has established the elements of today’s bureaucratic society. In The Ideas of Frederick. W.Taylor: An evaluation, there ar e various key themes and principles evident which have provided the foundations for some contemporary styles of management. The author suggests that Taylors concept of scientific management can be likened to the works of Thomas Edison. Scientific Management is Taylors most widely recognized principle. Taylor believed in a scientific approach toward managerial decisions making. That managerial decisions should be based upon proven fact rather than on tradition This principle proved to be most effective when selecting workmen and the time taken to complete a task, through scientific selection and time and motion studies, the man most suited to a particular type of work will be chosen, who is able to complete the work within a specific time frame through the one best way. Taylor believed in the standardization of tools and procedures becoming cohesive, allowing for effective and efficient work time, with adequate rest and pause breaks and shorter working hours.To motivate the worker Ta ylor assigned a realistic, quality amount of a job, on the basis of time study, which he deemed a task, which is the long term equivalent to the word goal. He believed that if management was to provide monetary incentives (the money bonus) and the worker achieved their goal, then there would be efficient productivity. However the key to efficiency was for management to provide feedback on the work being done. Along with this, a main objective of Taylors was to have positive working relations etween management and workers by understanding social factors, to achieve this, management would take responsibility for their new employees by training them properly which would eliminate confusion of standards and process and supporting the elimination of systematic soldiering. It is evident that Taylors main objective was to forge a mental revolution of knowledge and communication between manager and employee. In order to see the viewpoint of the sources, one must understand the context of th e time, where the working class man became of importance due to the boom of the industrial age, which created a middle class of society.Also the impending First World War would create need for consistency and efficiency. Due to the progression of the development of the machines, man needed to find a solution to compete in the global market, to increase workers efficiency so revenue would not become obsolete. Taylor’s principles, in theory, created the solution at the time. This is clear, as the ‘wage earner in the railroads car repair shops was only $163 compared to $283 in the shops of commercial car builders such as Pullman’ (Aldrich, 2010, p. 504 ) stressing a need to be competitive in the financial market.The implementations of Taylor’s principles of the incentive system and time study, costs in the shops were reduced 13-15%, with the worker earning a bonus if he was ‘at least 80% efficient’ (Aldrich, 2010, p. 507). A critique of this, it caused hostility in the worker, which resulted from the incentive system and as the ‘Taylorites viewed unions as interference’ (Aldrich, 2010, p. 507). This disagrees with the main source as Taylor did not oppose unions; he felt them unnecessary, as the proper implementation of his principles should result in effective manager-worker relations.Fifty percent of the sources accept that the concepts of Scientific Management, which Taylor wrote of, formulated the management style in the early 1900’s and subsequently elements of some contemporary organizations, such as IBM. All agree that Taylor was the ‘Founding Father’ of scientific management and produced some of the most influential principles, featuring the ‘One best way’, where the most efficient method of work would be adopted to all employees. Some of Taylors Scientific Management principles can be seen in IBM, first and foremost IBM believes in making informed decisions hrough knowle dge, in order to generate growth – scientific management. In the past IBM has spent twenty-five million on employee benefits, allowing security- incentive system. IBM expects ‘a return on investment from IBM families’ (Mason, 1991, p. 10). Through this they are able to measure ‘employee productivity’, which can be seen as a very modern and skewed notion of the time and motion studies, which Taylor would have measured the output of his employees. However at IBM ‘after 3 three years benefits are cut up to 75% and employees are no longer guaranteed full employment’ (Mason, 1991, p. 2). The first few concepts of IBM agree with the main article, however the last concept disagrees as Taylors incentive scheme would reduce the wage of a worker if they were not efficient, not dependant on the number of years an employee worked. Another critique of Taylor’s Scientific Management Principles was the mechanization of humans into machines, crea ting a lack of creativity within the employee, separating ‘brain from muscle’ (Maqbool, Zakariya, Paracha, 2011, p. 46). Taylor’s intention with Scientific management was to improve the working relations between manager and employee, believing that systematic soldiering could be stopped by good management, however Maqbool, Zakariya, Paracha believe that Taylor was naive in his understanding of employees, that the worker craved more than money and personal interrelations within the workforce, to be treated as individuals, not as machinery – this especially became evident after the war.This is clear in the study done by French and Coch in a pajama factory, where management had supposedly implemented the Scientific Management principles, money incentive and feedback system though the employees had little motivation and very low self esteem, due to the changing nature of their jobs. They found that employees felt satisfied when they were included in the decis ion making process and when management explained the changes, leading to job security. This both agrees and disagrees with the main source. It agrees, as that Taylor knew if his principles were not fully implemented, than it would not work.Though it could be said that Taylor was naive in the sense that he did not account that as the pie got bigger, so too would people’s ambitions. This disagrees, believing that Taylor did not dehumanize the workforce, just increased the efficiency of the worker through positive working relations. In conclusion it is clear that there is a distinct difference of opinion on Taylor’s principles. Fifty percent of the sources believe that scientific management became the fundamental concept of the early 1900’s due to the changing social and financial context of the time.That he was able to increase productivity efficiency with a reduction of costs, alongside positive working relations between manager and worker. Through this point of view it is clear that these principles transcend through time into a contemporary organisation, such as IBM However the remainder of the sources believes that Taylor dehumanized the workforce, focusing on efficiency and neglecting the basic needs of the worker, believing that the elements of Taylor’s principles have created a negative impact on society, bureaucracy.This view point accepts that Taylor ultimately created men as machines, ‘separating brain from muscle’ (Maqbool, Zakariya, Paracha, 2011, p. 846). References Aldrich, Mark. (2010). On the Track of Efficiency: Scientific Management Comes to Railroad Shops, 1900-1930. Business History Review, 84(3), 504-507. Bartlem, Carleton S. , Locke, Edwin A. (1981). The Coch and French Study: A critique and Reinterpretation. Business Source Complete, 34(7). Blake, Anne M. Moseley, James L. (2010). One Hundred Years After The Principles Of Scientific Management: Frederick Taylors Life And Impact On The Field Of Hum an Performance Technology. Performance Improvement, 49(4). Kidwell Jr, Ronald E. , Scherer, Philip M. (2001). Layoffs and Their Ethical Implications under Scientific Management, Quality Management and Open-Book Management. Journal of Business Ethics, 29(1/2). Locke, Edwin A. (19820. The Ideas of Frederick W. Taylor: An Evaluation.Academy of Management Review, 7(1). Latham, Gary P. , Timothy, P, Steele. The Motivational Effects of Participation Versus Goal Setting on Performance. Academy of Management Journal, 26(3). Maqbool, Mugheera. , Zakariya, Ahmad. , Paracha Naveed, Ahmer. (2011). A critique on Scientific Management. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(4), 846. Mason Cohen, Julie. (1991). IBM at the Crossroads. Management review, 80(9), 10-12. Myers, A. Lewis, Jr. (2011).One Hundred Years Later: What Would Frederick W. Taylor Say?. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(20) Ratnayake, Chandima R. M. (2009). Evolution of Scientif ic Management Towards Performance Measurement and Managing Systems for Sustainable Performance in Industrial Assets: Philosophical Point of View. Journal of Technology Management Innovation, 4(1). Zimmerman, Kent D. (1978). Participative Management: A Reexamination of the Classics. Academy of Management Review, 3(4).

The Study of Stone in Archaeology or Lithics

The Study of Stone in Archaeology or Lithics Definition: Archaeologists use the (slightly ungrammatical) term lithics to refer to artifacts made of stone. Since organic materials such as bone and textiles are rarely preserved, the most common type of artifact found on a prehistoric archaeological site is worked stone, whether as prepared tools such as a handaxe, adze or projectile point, hammerstone, or the tiny flakes of stone called debitage, which resulted from the construction of those tools.Lithic analysis is the study of those objects, and can entail things like determining where the stone was quarried (called sourcing), when the stone was worked (such as obsidian hydration), what kind of technology was used to make the stone tool (flint knapping and heat-treatment), and what evidence there is of the tools use usewear or residue studies).   Sources I whole-heartedly recommend the Stone Age Research Collection pages of Roger Grace, for those who want to delve deeper. Andrefsky, Jr., William 2007 The application and misapplication of mass analysis in lithic debitage studies. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:392-402. Andrefsky Jr., William 1994 Raw-material availability and the organization of technology. American Antiquity 59(1):21-34. Borradaile, G. J., et al. 1993 Magnetic and optical methods for detecting the heat treatment of chert. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:57-66. Cowan, Frank L. 1999 Making sense of flake scatters: Lithic technological strategies and mobility. American Antiquity 64(4):593-607. Crabtree, Donald E. 1972. An Introduction to Flintworking. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, No. 28. Pocatello, Idaho, Idaho State University Museum. Gero, Joan M. 1991 Genderlithics: Womens roles in stone tool production. In Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory. Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey, eds. Pp. 163-193. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Legal and Ethical Questions in Healthcare Assignment

Legal and Ethical Questions in Healthcare - Assignment Example It may be easier to argue that the physicians are right to suppress treatment on the patient, but a critical look at the case renders illegitimate, the approach they are taking. It is not lucid to argue that resources being used to treat the comatose patient are scarce, since not all patients are ICU or comatose patients. The growing number of outpatient referrals and attendees and the presence of patients needing less serious medical attention downplay the notion that healthcare resources are too scarce to support the right group. At the same time, the argument that it is unfair to spend a lot of money on the elderly instead of the relatively youthful smacks of ageism. The principle of benevolence (beneficence) also requires that the doctors should act in the patient’s best interests. It is clear that the comatose patient has not communicated his will (whether to have a Physician aid-in-dying, or not), and therefore, it is unlawful for these physicians to arrogate themselves this duty. The principle of non-malfeasance also prohibits these physicians from harming the patient. To extend the argument that non-malfeasance can have a double meaning to the elderly is not enough since even the young can be terminally ill. Likewise, the party that should characterize actions pertaining to non-malfeasance has not yet been ascertained; whether it is the doctor, the profession, the society or the patient. The action being taken by the physicians is unlawful, as it borders along passive euthanasia. Lastly, the principle of autonomy also asserts the right and legitimacy of patients to choose how their illnesses should be treated and to speak in this light. It is not right to argue that as people grow older, they lose the ability to make decisions, unless the patient is legally declared non compos mentis. Even in the case of non compos mentis, categorizing the patient as unwanted in lieu of wanted, must factor the input of the legal surrogate or an Advanced Directive . Question 2 As the government reduces payments for healthcare services, the ethical issues of limiting care that are bound to emerge, border on the EOL (end of life). Particularly, concerns such as the kind of care and the amount of money that should be expended on people with limited lifespan are to arise. This development is likely to catalyze conflicts between physicians and patients’ family members on the essence and extent of appropriate care. Annually, the government has had to absorb billions for undocumented and uncompensated care. In 2008 for instance, hospitals were compelled to absorb 36 billion US dollars in unpaid care. This figure included bills and charity care that remained unpaid by both the underinsured and the uninsured. Similarly, in the event that the government cuts its funding for healthcare services, people with no resources to access healthcare services are likely to turn to unqualified medical centers and practitioners. This is because restricted fu nding by the government will have made healthcare services inaccessible and too expensive for many (Leigh & Wheatley, 2010). According to Dewar (2010), the state's responsibility to ensure healthcare services is diverse, given that healthcare services and goods are public or social goods. It is the government’s responsibility to ensure the highest level of affordability and accessibility to healthcare services by the public. The government can do this by for instance, easing

How far was foreign intervention responsible for the Nationalist Essay

How far was foreign intervention responsible for the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War - Essay Example The sole objective of my investigation is to measure the tremendous impact which certain foreign countries exerted on the Spanish Civil War and whether they are to be held guilty and blameworthy for supporting the rebellious subjects during the Civil War or not. From this perspective, it seems relevant to address the following question: to what extent was foreign intervention responsible for the National victory in the Spanish Civil War? Waged between the Republicans and the Nationalists for a period of three years (from 1936 to 1939), the Spanish Civil War was indeed a ferocious conflict that has both destroyed and devastated Spain. The conflict has began immediately after an attempt of a coup d’à ©tat triggered by a herd of dissatisfied Spanish Army generals who declared themselves the new authority in Spain wielding much excessive power. Remarkable is that the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, the Spanish landlords and some of the industrialists and financiers did not hesitate an instance to afford instinctive and unconditioned support to the military insurgency. These people have developed some kind of phobia and aversion for the elected government’s schemes for reform and sought to create a state of chaos and disorder in Spain with the aid of some foreign countries. My intervention therefore is to shed light on the divergent aspects of the Spanish Civil war, focusing mainly on the way foreign countries intervened in it in shaping National victory. As a matter of fact, the rebellious Spanish subjects were backed up by the conservative Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (Confederacià ³n Espaà ±ola de Derechas Autà ³nomas, or C.E.D.A), monarchists known as Carlist groups, and the Fascist Falange (Falange Espaà ±ola de las J.O.N.S.).1 Prominently, the military purely Spanish conflict has ended with the defeat of the Republican government, the victory of the right-wing generals and the foundation of a dictatorship under the auspices

Sherlock Holmes Essay Essay Example for Free

Sherlock Holmes Essay Essay Arthur Conan Doyle has written a number of short stories about a fictional character called Sherlock Holmes and his trusted work mate Dr. Watson. Together they solve mysteries using the art of the reasoner and imaginative thinking. I have recently been studying the adventure of the speckled band among other short stories. Holmes is portrayed as an intelligent crime solver, with quick thinking skills and a sharp mind. We find straight away in the story that Dr. Watson and Holmes are good friends as Holmes wakes Watson up early especially because he thinks he would want to learn about the case right from the start. Holmes has an eye for detail, which we realise near the beginning of the story as he can clearly describe how the woman travelled to meet him, by the half return ticket and mud splatters on her jacket. The crime is a murder; set it the mansion belonging Dr. Grimesby Roylott in Stoke Moran. Dr. Roylott was in great debt and rented out most of his property to gypsies. He was a very lonely, bitter, miserable man. The murder is described by the victims sister, Helen Stoner, she saw her sister just before she died and experienced some of the strange things that happened to her sister on the night of her death, afraid and worried she turned to Holmes for his help. There are many suspects in this story, such as the gypsies, or the animals that the doctor kept in the grounds. But the prime suspect in this scenario was the doctor himself, he had the motive, if his daughters should marry then the money from their mothers will, would go to them. Therefore if they were to die before they got married the doctor would keep the money. It is an unusual murder because the room in which it took place was locked, with the windows closed and metal bars put there. On visiting the scene Holmes finds some peculiar abnormalities with the room, there is a bell- pull, which isnt fixed to a bell, just the ceiling. Also the bed is nailed to the floor and there is an air vent between this room and the doctors. Holmes also looked in the doctors room and found a bowl of milk on top of a safe also a small dog lead hung on the corner of the bed and tied to make a loop of whipcord. Holmes finds these clues using the art of the reasoner and his imaginative thinking, to work out how the previous murder happened and when the next was about to happen. Holmes also uses the art of the reasoner in another short story- Silver blaze, where the prize racing horse is stolen and its owner beaten to death in Kings Pyland, Holmes works out that it cant have been anyone other than John Straker or his wife, as no-one else could have made it so that curried mutton was the dinner for the stable boys, so as to hide the taste of the sleeping drug put in it. So that Straker could take the horse out of the stable at night, in order to harm the horse and fix the race. The murder weapon was an Indian snake; the doctor kept it in a safe, but whenever one of his daughters was to be married, he would let it out. It would make its way through the air vent; down the dummy bell- pull and onto the bed to kill whatever was lying bellow it. It was then called back with a whistle, to the doctors room and put back in the safe. The red herring in this story could be the cheetah and the baboon, as they could have come into the house and killed the girl, also the gypsies as there were some around at the time of the murder, and the before the victim died she said the speckled band which could have meant the spotted scarves they are often found wearing and a band of gypsies. The tension is built up when Holmes and Watson stay in Helen Stoners room to find out what killed her sister and could possibly kill her. As they sit in darkness listening to the night sounds outside, waiting for what they dont know at this stage, then Holmes realises that a snake has just entered the room and scares it off with a light. The twist in the tale is right at the end, when, because the snake is scared back through the ventilator, it gets confused and bites Dr. Roylott. So his greedy and malicious plan backfires, and he is killed. I chose to write about this story because I think that it has a lot of good points to describe, and it is a great, gripping story. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Conan Doyle section.

Morality in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter Essay -- Scarlet Letter ess

Morality in The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚   "...pain is in itself an evil; and indeed, without exception, the only evil; or else the words good and evil have no meaning." (Chase 127) In the novel The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne presents a very clear view of his stand on morality, which he carefully cultivates through the course of the story. The moral, which is "Be true!" applies equally well to all of the characters in the novel. Though his view does seem to stand as true through the length of the story, it does not, unfortunately, transfer as smoothly to our lives today. In essence it is a hedonistic view to take, which requires a slight stretch as to his interpretation as to how evil, and important, an individual's pain is unto itself. By looking at each of the main characters in turn, it may be determined exactly what his view was on this subject, and how it may be applied to life in our society today.    Because his moral is more explicitly defined as "Be true! Be true! Be true! Show freely to the world, if not your worst, some trait by which your worst may be inferred!" Hester Prynne is a sound example, for she did exactly that. She could not, and did not, hide her sin, and as a result wore it clearly at all times on her breast, hiding nothing. While at first it may seem as though she was punished more than any other character, because she was so physically punished, Hawthorne makes it clear that she was the most satisfied character in the novel, eventually finding peace with herself because she had no pressing secrets to gnaw at her conscience. Physically, however, the Puritan imposition of punishment was harsh, and unyielding. It brought her below many of the men and women of the town, and had the psychologic... .... 47-49). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Canby, Henry S. (1996). "A Skeptic Incompatible with His Time and His Past." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 55- 63). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Chase, Richard (1996). "The Ambiguity of the Scarlet Letter." Readings on Nathaniel Hawthorne (pp. 145-152). San Diego: Greenhaven.    Gartner, Matthew. "The Scarlet Letter and the Book of Esther: Scriptural Letter and Narrative Life." Studies in American Fiction (1995): 131-144.    Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. New York: St. Martins, 1991.    Loring, G. B. (1850). "The Scarlet Letter and Transcendentalism." Massachusetts Quarterly Review [On-line], pp. 1-6. Available: http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/loring.html    Scharnhorst, Gary. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.

Powermat, Inc. Cases (Recruitment) Essay

Powermat, Inc. has encountered difficulty over the last few years in filling its middle-management positions. The company, which manufactures and sells complex machinery, is organised into six semi-autonomous manufacturing departments. Top management believes that it is necessary for these departmental managers to know the product lines and the manufacturing process, because many managerial decisions must be made at that level. Therefore, the company originally recruited employees from within. However, they soon found that employees elevated to the middle-management level often lack the skills necessary to discharge their new duties. A decision then was made to recruit from outside, particularly from educational institutes with good industrial management programmes. Through the services of a professional recruiter, the company was provided with a pool of well qualified management graduates. Some of them were hired and placed in lower management positions as preparation for advancemen t to the middle-management jobs. They all left the company, however, within two years of their recruitment. Management reverted to its former policy of promoting employees from within and experienced basically the same results as before. Faced with the imminent retirement of employees in several key middle management positions, the company decided d to call in a consultant who could suggest solutions. Discussion Questions 1. What is the problem of recruiting in this company? 2. If you were the consultant, what would you recommend? HRM Planning and Staffing 2.1 Introduction Human resource planning and staffing is one of the toughest task, an organization has before it. Selecting the right man for the right job at the right time is main task of the HR department. The main task is to ensure that the staff of the organization does not leave the organization and  ensure that they are satisfied and that the work of the organization is not affected by the absence of the employee and so on. 2.2 Objectives After reading this chapter, the student will understand the process and problems of HR Planning, job analysis, its process, job description, etc. 2.2 Process and Problems of Human Resource Planning. HRP Process Company Objectives & Strategic Plans P Market Forecast Production Objectives/Process Capital/Financial Plans Plans H A S E Time Horizon (Short/Long Term) 1 Human Resources Demand Forecast N Number O R Category M S Skills Action Plans Recruitment Retraining Redundancy Productivity Retention Monitoring and Control Factors affecting HRP Type and strategy of organization Organizational growth cycles and planning Environmental uncertainties Time horizons Type and quality of forecasting information Nature of jobs being filled and Off-loading the work Type and strategy of organization The type of organization is an important consideration because it determines the production processes involved, number and type of staff needed, and the supervisory and managerial personnel required. Manufacturing organizations are more complex in this respect than those that render services. The strategic plan of the organization defines the organization’s HR needs. E.g. A Strategy of internal growth means that additional employees must be hired. Acquisitions or mergers, on the other hand, probably mean that the organization will need to plan for layoffs, since mergers tend to create, duplicate or overlapping positions that can be handled more efficiently with fewer employees. Primarily, the organization decides either to be proactive or reactive in HRP. It can either decide to carefully anticipate the needs and systematically plan them to fill them in advance, or it can simply react to needs as they arise. The above diagram summaries the 5 choices faced by the organizations in strategic HRP. An organization will often tend to be to the left or right on some and to the right on the other, although there could be exceptions. A company could be at one end of the extreme on some plan characteristics and at the other end on other. B. Organization Growth Cycle and Planning The stage of an organization’s growth can have considerable influence on HRP. Small organizations in the embryonic stage may not have personnel planning. Need for planning is felt when the organization enters the growth stage. HR forecasting becomes essential. Internal development of people also begins to receive attention in order to keep up with the growth. A mature organization experiences less flexibility and variability. Growth slows down. The workforce becomes old as few younger people are hired. Planning becomes more formalized and less flexible and innovative. Issues like retirement and possible retrenchment dominate planning. Finally, in the declining stage, HRP takes a different focus. Planning is done for layoff, retrenchment and retirement. Since decisions are often made after serious financial and sales shocks are experienced by the organization, planning is often reactive in nature. C. Environmental Uncertainties HR managers rarely have the privilege of operating in a stable and predictable environment. Political, social and economic changes affect all organizations. Personnel planners deal with environmental uncertainties by carefully formulating recruitment, selection and training and development policies and programmes. Balancing mechanisms are built into the HRM programme through succession planning, promotion channels, layoffs, flexitime, job sharing, retirement, VRS and other personnel related arrangements. D. Time Horizons Since there are long and short term plans spanning from six months to twenty years, the exact time span depends on the degree of uncertainty prevailing in an organization’s environment. Plans for companies operating in an unstable environment, computers for example, must be for a short period. Plans for others where environment is fairly stable, for example a university plan, maybe long-term. In general, the greater the uncertainty, the shorter the plan’s time horizon and vice-versa. E. Type and Quality of Information The information used to forecast personnel needs originates form a multitude of sources. A major issue in personnel planning is the type of information which should be used in making forecasts. Closely related to the type of information is the quality of data used. The quality and accuracy of information depend upon the clarity with which the organizational decision makers have defined their strategy, organizational structure, budgets, production schedules and so on. In addition, the HR department must maintain well-developed job-analysis information and HR information systems that provide accurate and timely data. Generally speaking, organizations operating in stable environments are in a better position to obtain comprehensive, timely and accurate information because of longer planning horizons, clearer definitions of strategy and objectives, and fewer disruptions. F. Nature of Jobs being filled Personnel planners must consider the nature of jobs being filled in the organization. Job vacancies arise because of separations, promotions and expansion strategies. It is easy to employ shop-floor workers, but a lot of sourcing is necessary for hiring managerial personnel. It is, therefore, necessary for the personnel department to anticipate vacancies, as far in advance as possible, to provide sufficient lead time to ensure that suitable candidates are recruited. G. Outsourcing Several organizations outsource part of their work to outside parties either in the form of sub-contracting or ancillarisation. Outsourcing is a regular feature both in private and public sectors. Most organizations have surplus labour and they do not want to worsen the problem by hiring more people. Hence, the need for off-loading. Competence Analysis. Every person in the organization need not have all the competence to do the desired work. The HR department identifies the competence of the individual employee and maps the same with the jobs in the organization. If an employee is capable of doing a particular job, to increase his efficiency, the HR department gives training to improve his competence in doing that job more skillfully and even more effectively and efficiently. Job Analysis and Design Job Analysis is the process by which data, with regard to each job, is systematically observed and noted. It provides information about the nature of the job and the characteristics or qualifications that are desirable in the job holder. Job analysis provides precisely what the duties, responsibilities, working environment and other requirements of a job are and to present these in a clear, concise and systematic way Job Analysis study attempts to provide information in seven basic areas: Job Identification or its title, including the code number, if any. Distinctive or significant characteristics of the job, its location setting, supervision, union jurisdiction and hazards and discomforts, if any. What the typical worker does: specific operations and tasks that make up the assignment and their relative timing and importance; the simplicity, the routine or complexity of tasks, responsibility for others, for property, or for funds. What materials and equipment the worker uses: Metals, plastics, grain, yarns; and lathes, milling machines, electronic ignition testers, corn huskers, punch presses and micrometers are illustrative. How the job is performed: the emphasis here is on the nature of operations and may specify such operations as handling, feeding, removing, drilling, driving, setting up and many others. Required personnel attributes: Experience, training apprenticeship, physical strength, coordination or dexterity, physical demands, mental capabilities, aptitudes , and social skills are some attributes. The conditions under which the work is performed: Working conditions and work environments is a major contributing factor in the  performance of the job, and the satisfaction of the employee. Job Analysis: Process To be meaningful and useful for personnel related decision-making, job analysis must be carried more at frequent intervals. Jobs in the past were considered to be static and were designed on the basis that they would not change. People working on these jobs were different, the jobs remained unchanged. For higher efficiency and productivity, jobs must change according to the employees who carry them out. Some of the major reasons leading such changes are: Technological Change: The pace of change in technology necessitates changes in the nature of job as well as the skills required. E.g. Word processing has drastically changed the nature of secretarial jobs. Union-Management Agreements: The agreements entered between management and the union can bring about change in the nature of job, duties and responsibilities. For example, under employees participation scheme, the workers are encouraged to accept wider responsibilities. People: Each employee brings with him his own strengths and we aknesses, his own style of handling a job and his own aptitude. Steps in Job Analysis Process Organization Analysis: The first step is to get an overall view of various jobs in the organization with a view to examine the linkages between jobs and the organizational objectives, interrelationships among the jobs and the contribution of various jobs towards achieving organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The organization chart and the work flow or process charts constitute an important source of information for the purpose. Use of Job Analysis Information: Depending on organizational priorities and constraints, it is desirable to develop clarity regarding the possible uses of the information pertaining to job analysis. It is important to focus on a few priority activities in which the job analysis information could be used. Selection of Jobs for Analysis: Carrying out job analysis is a time-consuming and costly process. It is therefore, desirable to select a representative sample of jobs for purposes of analysis Collection of Data: Data will be collected on the characteristics of the job, the required behaviour and personal attributes needed to do the job effectively. Several techniques for job analysis are available. Care needs to be taken to use only such techniques, which are acceptable and reliable in the existing situation within the organization. Preparation of Job Description: The information collected in the previous step is used in preparing the job description for the job highlighting major tasks, duties and responsibilities for effective job performance Preparation of Job Specification: Likewise, the information gathered in the â€Å"Collection of Data† is also used to prepare the job specification for a job highlighting the personal attributes in terms of education, training, aptitude and experience to fulfill the job description. Job Analysis thus carried out provides basic inputs to the design of jobs so that it is able to meet the requirements of both the organization (in terms of efficien cy and productivity) as well as the employees (in terms of job satisfaction and fulfillment). Developing appropriate job design is then the outcome of the job analysis process. JOB DESCRIPTION Data collected for job analysis provides the basis for preparing job description. It refers to the job contents and the expectations that an organization has from its employees. Job descriptions usually outline the minimum requirements of jobs for many reasons: First, despite all the attempts, a perfect and fully inclusive job description is not possible. In fact, as one moves up in the hierarchy of an organization, a detailed job description becomes very difficult. Secondly, most organizations would prefer not to describe the job fully, if it is possible, because employees would then stick to what has been described and would not do anything beyond it. Thirdly, if a job were fully described, supervision would automatically be taken care of by the duties performed, making some of the duties of the supervisory staff redundant. Fourthly, technology is ~hanging fast and hence the nature of job is also chang ¬ing. Unless an organization continuously updates the job description, it woul d be difficult to monitor the performance of the employees. DESIGN OF JOB DESCRIPTION A primary output or result of job analysis is job description. Information obtained by job analysis is shifted and recorded concisely, clearly and fully in the job description. The job description must assemble all the important elements of a job, such as essential tasks, responsibilities, qualifications required and the functional relation of the job to other jobs. There is no universally accepted standard format for job descriptions for the reason that the form and structure of the job descriptions must depend on the kind of work being analyzed and the job evaluation plan being used. For example, if the job evaluation form comprises factors such as physical and intellectual effort, knowledge, skills, and responsibilities and working conditions, it follows that job description should be structured to reflect these factors so as to facilitate factor by factor comparison and evaluation of the jobs. With non- analytical methods, job description may be more flexible and simpler but most specify the title of the job and its position in the organization, summarizes the tasks performed and list the skills and abilities required. It is helpful to follow the following guidelines when writing a job description: I. Always be accurate about what is expressed. Omit expressions which are attributes- such as uninteresting, distasteful, etc. Personal pronouns should be avoided- if it is necessary to refer to the worker, the word† operator† may be used. Do not describe only one phase of the job and give the impression that all phases are covered. Generalized or ambiguous expressions, such as ‘prepare’, ‘assist’, ‘handle’ etc. should be omitted unless supported by data that will clarify them. All statements should be clearly defined and simply set down- promiscuous use of adjectives only reflects one’s own opinion. Describe the job as is being done, by the majority of workers holding the designation. Write in simple language– explain unusual technical terms. Description of a job, which is part of teamwork, should establish the team relationship. The length of description is immaterial; it is not expected even with printed form!: that all job descriptions should be of equal length but write concisely. When the job analyst finds that the data he has to work with is insufficient, s/he should  stop until sufficient data is available. Put the date of completion of each description and revise it as often as changes in jobs and occupation require. Job description should have the concurrence of the concerned supervisor. Description should contain the initials of the persons who compile them. USES OF JOB DESCRIPTION Apart from being a basis for job evaluation, the job descriptions can be put to many uses. They are as under: Supervisor- Employee Communication: The information contained in the job description outlines the work, which the incumbent is expected to perform. Hence, it is an extremely useful document for both the supervisor and the subordinate for purposes of communication. Furthermore, it helps employees to understand just what work their associates are expected to perform, thus, facilitating integration of efforts at the work site by the employees themselves. Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Transfer: Information pertaining to the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the work to an acceptable standard, can be used as a sound basis on which to base standards are procedures for recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer. Work Performance Appraisal: To be sound and objective, a performance appraisal system must be rooted in the work performed by the employee; such . work is indicated by the duties in the job description. In such an approach, using each duty as the basis for discussion, the employee and the su pervisor agree on work performance goals for the period to be covered by the subsequent evaluation report; they also agree on the criteria to be used to determine the extent to which the goals have been attained. The reports resulting from this methodology minimize subjectivity by focusing attention on the job, as distinct from the personality traits, habits or practices of the employee. As a conse ¬quence, the results are more factual; valid and defensible than is the case in other types of systems. Manpower Planning, Training and Development: These three processes are closely interrelated. The job description showing, in specific terms, the knowledge, skill and ability requirements for effective performance of the duties, is a sound and rational basis for each of these processes. Analysis  of various types of jobs at progressively more senior levels will indicate logical sources of supply for more senior posts, as part of manpower planning. It will also indicate the gap to be bridged in terms of knowledge, skill and ability, thus providing a sound basis for preparingj0b- related training and development programmes. Industrial Relations: Frequently, issues arise in the industrial relatio ns field, which have their origin in the work to be undertaken. In these instances the job description may be used to form a factual basis for discussion and problem resolution. Organization and Procedure Analysis- The duties and responsibilities outlined in the job description may be used to a great advantage by management in analyzing organisation and procedures, because they reveal how the work is organized, how the procedure operate and how authority and responsibility are appointed. A Job Description should include a: I. Job Title: It represents a summary statement of what the job entails. Job Objective or Overall Purpose Statement: This statement is generally a summary designed to orient the reader to the general nature, level, purpose and objective of the job. The summary should describe the broad function and scope of the position and be no longer than three to four sentences. List of Duties or Tasks Performed: The list contains an item-by-item list of principal duties, continuing responsibilities and accountability of the occupant of the position. The list should contain each and every essential job duty or respon ¬sibility that is critical to the successful performance of the job. The list should begin with the most important functional and relational responsibilities and continue down in order of significance. Each duty or responsibility that comprises at least five percent of the incumbent’s time should be included in the list. Description of the Relationships and Roles: the occupa nt of the position holds’ within the company, including any supervisory positions, subordinating roles and/or other working relationships. JOB SPECIFICATION Workload analysis helps in identifying the minimum qualification needed to perform a particular job. These may include academic qualifications, professional qualifications, age, years of experience, relevance and nature of previous experience, and other skills and attitudes. They form the  minimum eligibility requirements, which the candidate must have, for the appointment to a job. A clear indication of specifications helps in generating eligible applications, because of self-selection. The candidates who do not possess those qualifications do not apply. On the other hand, lack of clear- cut specifications may generate a large number of applications, leading to high costs, in terms of man-hours, in processing them. There is a great deal of disagreement with regard to developing complete and correct job specification unlike the job description, which provides more objective assessment of job requirements. The decision to specify minimum human requirements for ajob is a difficult one as it involves considerable degree of subjectivity. There is a general feeling that organisations generally tend to establish relatively high requirements for formal education and training, resulting in a situation where highly qualified people end up doing jobs of routine nature. Particularly, in India, highly qualified personnel are recruited for jobs where their abilities, skills and knowledge are under- utilized. Despite these problems, however, minimally acceptable human requirements need to be specified for various jobs and category of jobs. The format for job specification should include the following items: †¢ Position Title †¢ Education/ Training †¢ Experience †¢ Knowledge †¢ Abilities †¢ Skills †¢ Aptitude †¢ Desirable Attributes †¢ Contra-indicators, if any any. From job analysis to jobless world Job enrichment means redefining in a way that increases the opportunities for workers to experience building of responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition by doing job well. Analysing together the job Establishing client recognition Vertical loading Job-Sharing Flexible job doing pattern etc. Open feedback channels. Whether specialised, enlarged or enriched, workers skill generally likes to have specific job to do and the job require job descriptions. But in the emerging organisation today jobs are becoming more amorphous and more difficult to define. In other â€Å"words’ the trend is towards â€Å"do-jobbing in many modern organisation. Given this general description of organisation, roles that are clearly defined play a significant part in accomplishing the goals of the organisation. Roles can be seen in a variety of ways. Role and Role Dynamics A role is a set of expectations associated with a job or a position. When roles are unclear or complicated performance problem can occur. Role ambiguity occurs when someone is uncertain about what is expected of him or her. To do any job; the people need know what is expected of them. Role clarity is important for every member of the group, but that is more important for new members. Role ambiguity creates problems and the whole efforts is either wasted or of appreciated. Expecting too much or too little may create problem. Role overload occurs when too much is expected and individual feels overloaded with work/responsibility. Role underload occurs when too little is expected and the individual feels underutilized therefore, a balanced and realistic role load is expected. Role conflict occurs when a person is unable to meet the expectations of others. The individual understands what needs to be done but for some reasons can not comply. The resulting tension can reduce job satisfaction, affects both work performance and the relationship with other groups members. The Common forms of role conflict are: intra sender role-conflicting which occurs when the same person sends conflicting expectations. inter sender role-conflict occurs when different people send conflicting expecta ¬tions. Person-Job-conflict-occurs when one’s personal values & needs come into conflict with role expectations. inter role conflict occurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by the same individual becomes incompatible-such as conflict between work & family demands. One way of  managing role-dynamics in any group or work setting is the role ¬negotiation. This is the process through which individual negotiate to clarify the role expectation each holds for the other. 7.2 ROLE DESCRIPTION Well-written role descriptions define the work of the organisation and its reasons for existence as an employer of human resources. Moreover, they define and help quantify the relative importance of work, what each position contributes to a process and the organisation as a whole. This definition illustrates an important point regarding role descriptions. Used in today’s work environment, they describe not only what the role is all about but also how it contributes to the work of the organisation. They describe the nature of the work to be done by stating the purpose and main responsibilities. They may also include information on the type of person who is best suited to perform the job. Role descriptions are a valuable resource. They have the potential to be useful organisational tools; however, to realize their potential they must be properly monitored. There are two main types of role descriptions, the generic or general and the specific or individual. RECRUITMENT Recruitment is the development and maintenance of adequate manpower sources. It involves the creation of a pool of available human resources from-which the organisation can draw when it needs additional employees. Recruiting is the process of attracting applicants with certain skills, abilities; and other personal characteristics to job vacancies in an organisation. According to Denerley and Plumblay (1969), recruitment is concerned with both engaging the required number of people, and measuring their quality. It is not only a matter of satisfying a company’s needs, it†¢is also an activity which influences the shape of the company’s future. The need for recruitment may arise out of: (i) vacancies due to promotion, transfer, termination, retirement, permanent disability, or death; (ii) creation. of vacancies due to business expansion, diversification, growth, and soon. Recruitment has been regarded as the most important function of personnel administration. Unless t he right types of people are hired, even the best plans, organisation charts and control systems will be of no avail. A company cannot prosper; grow, or even survive without adequate human resources. Need  for trained manpower in recent years has created a pressure on some organisations to establish an efficient recruitment function. RECRUITMENT PURPOSE The general purpose of recruitment is to provide a pool of potentially qualified candidates to meet organizational need. Its specific purposes are to: Determine the present and future requirements of the organisation in conjunction with the personnel planning and job analysis activities. Increase the pool of job candidates with minimum cost. Help increase the success rate of the selection process by reducing the number of under qualified or overqualified job applicants. Help reduce the probability that job applicants, once recruited and selected, will leave the organisation only after a short period of time. Meet the organisation’s legal and social obligations regarding the composition of’ its workforce.? Start identifying and preparing potential job applicants who will be appropriate candidates.? Increase organisational and individual effectiveness in the short and long term.? Evaluate the effectiveness of various recruiting. techniques and sources for all types of job applicants.? RECRUITMENT POLICY Recruitment policy may involve a commitment to broad principles such as filling vacancies with the best qualified individuals. It may embrace several issues such as extent of promotion from within, attitudes of enterprise in recruiting its old employees, handicaps, minority groups, women employees, part-time employees, friends and relatives of present employees. It may also involve the organisation system to be developed for implementing recruitment programme and procedures. A well considered and pre-planned recruitment policy, based on corporate goals, study of environment and the corporate needs, may avoid hasty or ill-considered decisions and may go a â€Å"long way to man the organisation with the right type of personnel. A good recruitment policy must contain the following elements: Organisation’s objectives – both short term and long term.? Identification of the recruitment needs.? Preferred sources of recruitment.? Criteria of selection and preferences.? The cost of recruitment and financial implications of the same.? A recruitment policy in its broadest sense involves a commitment by the employer to (i) find the best qualified persons for each job; (ii) retain the best and most promising of those hired; (iii) offer promising opportunities for life-time working careers; and (iv) provide programmes and facilities for personal growth on the job. RECRUITMENT PROCESS To be successful, the recruitment process must follow a number of steps. These are: Defining the job? Establishing the person profile? Making the vacancy known? Receiving and documenting applications? Designing and using the application form? Selecting? Notification and final checks? Induction.? SOURCES OF MANPOWER SUPPLY Once the job analysis is completed and the job specification or behavioural competencies are identified, the next stage is to consider how to attract people who meet the requirements. A key decision is about whether to recruit internally or externally. Before an organisation actively begins recruiting applicants, it should have a knowledge of the sources of supply and methods of tapping them. The sources of supply do not remain constant but vary from time to time. The sources of supply of manpower can be divided into two groups – internal and external sources. Internal sources relate to the existing working force of an enterprise while external sources relate to the employment exchanges, colleges, institutes, and universities. The particular sources and means by which workers are recruited vary greatly. It depends upon management policy, the types of jobs involved, the supply of labour relative to demand, and labour market. In deciding which recruitment source to use, consider (a) the nature and size of the company; (b) the level of  vacancies to be filled up; (c) the number of vacancies to be filled up; (d) budget allocation; and (e) the time period to fill the vacancy. Internal Sources: Internal sources are the most obvious sources. These include personnel already on the pay-roll of an organisation, i.e., its present working force.

Psychological Barriers in Communication Essay

A barrier is anything that prevents something from getting through to its destination or receiver as intended. In communication, a barrier will prevent a message from traveling in a manner that gives it proper meaning. Although invisible, psychological barriers can be just as impenetrable as more obvious barriers, such as language differences, unless you become aware of them. Ads by Google Vacancies Australia 5 urgent positions left. Apply now! Vacancies Australia jobrapido.com​/​vacancies+australia Fields of Experience Intentional or not, we create barriers with our past experiences. For example, many people were raised on the value systems of their parents, but as adults, they realized their parents perpetuated stereotypes. Shedding those values from your upbringing can be difficult, even if you try, and can come across in your communication. This is true for the listener as well — she can be so focused on the prejudice she has for the speaker that it’s difficult to give full attention to the intended message. Filtering If you are having a bad day, or just experienced some emotional trauma such as the illness or death of a loved one, you will find it very difficult to either speak or listen in a manner conducive to understanding the intended messages. This is known as filtering; you are so consumed by your own needs that your emotional state is guiding

Life Science and the Law essays

Life Science and the Law essays One issue that has been a controversy is the preservation of endangered species. Ever since the 1960's, scientists have been fighting for laws and acts to protect animals and plants in keeping them in good health and their populations high in numbers. The problem is animals and plants are having trouble surviving in today's world which leads them to be classified as endangered or threatened. Endangered, meaning animals or plants with little population that the species could soon become extinct and threatened is less severe and basically just means that they are close to becoming endangered. By species becoming endangered, this affects our habitat's biodiversity. Today, however, human beings are dependent for their food, health, well-being and enjoyment of life on fundamental biological systems and processes. Humans derive all of its food and many medicines and industrial products from the wild and without biological diversity these actions could not take place. Overall, major concern is stressed over this topic not only for species well-being, but for our strength and our environment. The law has a major impact on life sciences. Many acts and laws have been passed and through the years even revised to help benefit the species. The first act is a major act in dealing with this subject .The Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966 and the Endangered Species Conservation act of 1969 was to demonstrate the stress on trying to protect endangered species. Although they weren't that effective. So on December 28, 1973, Richard M. Nixon signs the Endangered Species Act, which leads to the rise of environmental protection legislation. This law makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered or threatened species unless it is used for an approved scientific purpose or to enhance the survival of the species. Also the endangered species on this list cannot be hunted , killed, collected, or injured i...

Laugh in Spanish With the Verbs Reír and Reírse

Laugh in Spanish With the Verbs Reà ­r and Reà ­rse Is there a difference in meaning between reà ­r and reà ­rse? Dictionaries give the same definition for both. The two verbs, which mean to laugh, mean basically the same thing. Although you will find some regional variations, reà ­rse is the more common of the two. Thus, while reà ­ would be understood to mean I laughed, it would be more common to say me reà ­. Reà ­r by itself can sometimes sound poetic or old-fashioned. When Reà ­r or Reà ­rse Is Required There are at least two cases where one form is required: More commonly, when followed by de, the reflexive form reà ­rse usually means to make fun of or to laugh at: Me reà ­a de mi hermano, pero ahora somos amigos. (I used to make fun of my brother, but now were friends.)14. 3/19. Expanded, fixed error, added takeawaysSe reirn de su falta de sofisticacià ³n computarizada. (They will laugh at your lack of computer sophistication.)Me quiero reà ­r de mà ­ mismo. (I want to laugh at myself.) If you are talking about  what makes a person laugh, the reflexive form isnt used. Hacer is typically used as the verb for to make: Me hace reà ­r cuando estoy triste. (She makes me laugh when Im sad.)Austin Powers no me hizo reà ­r ms de una vez. (Austin powers didnt make me laugh more than once.)Ayer me hiciste daà ±o y hoy me vas a hacer reà ­r. (Yesterday you hurt me and today youre going to make me laugh.) Theres no logical reason why reà ­rse de is used to mean to laugh at rather than reà ­rse a or even reà ­rse en. Thats just the way it is. This is one of those cases where you should learn the preposition along with the verb. Conjugation of Reà ­r and Reà ­rse Reà ­r is one of the very few -ir verbs with an accent on the final syllable. It is conjugated irregularly, but only in terms of writing, not pronunciation. An written accent is needed in many forms to prevent the e of the stem and and à ­ of the ending from forming a diphthong. And example of the written irregularity can be seen in the indicative present forms with the irregular forms shown in boldface): yo rà ­o, tà º rà ­es, usted/à ©l/ella rà ­e, nosotros/as reà ­mos, vosotros/as reà ­s, ustedes/ellos/ellas rà ­en. Words Related to Reà ­r Among the Spanish words related to or derived from reà ­r: la risa - laugh (noun), laughterrisible - laughablerisià ³n - mockery, ridicule (noun)la risita - chuckle (noun)el riso - chuckle (noun; word used in limited areas)la risotada - guffawsonreà ­r - to smilesonriente - smiling (adjective)la sonrisa - smile (noun) Among the few English words etymologically related to reà ­r are derision and risible. All these words come from the Latin  ridÄ“re, which meant to laugh. Phrases Using Reà ­r or Reà ­rse Here are four common expressions that use these verbs, most often reà ­rse. Translations other than those given here can be used: reà ­rse a carcajadas - to laugh ones head off, to laugh ones tail off, to roar with laughter, etc. (A carcajada is a loud laugh or a guffaw.) - Nos reà ­amos a carcajadas de las cosas que decà ­a el cà ³mico. (We roared with laughter at the things the comic said.) A more colloquial way of saying the same thing is reà ­r a mandà ­bula batiente, literally to laugh with a flapping jaw.reà ­rse entre dientes - to chuckle (literally, to laugh between the teeth) - La tenista rià ³ entre dientes y sacudià ³ la cabeza. (The tennis player chuckled and shook her head.)reà ­rse hasta el llanto - to laugh until crying - Muchos dà ­as nos reà ­amos hasta el llanto. (Many days we would laugh to the point of crying.)reà ­rse para adentro - to laugh on the inside - Me rà ­o para adentro cuando recuerdo lo que escribià ³. (I laugh on the inside when I remember what she wrote.) Key Takeaways Both reà ­r and its reflexive form, reà ­rse, mean to laugh, and they are often interchangeable with little to no change in meaning.The reflexive form reà ­rse is used in the phrase reà ­rse de, meaning to laugh at, while the simple form reà ­r is used in the phrase hacer reà ­r, meaning to cause to laugh.Reà ­r and reà ­rse are conjugated regularly in terms of pronunciation, but a written accent is often needed to maintain that pronunciation.

Offensive strategy options - CostCo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Offensive strategy options - CostCo - Essay Example Nevertheless, with increased domestic competition within the U.S. retail industry and the maturity of the market, Costco needs to consider other offensive strategies that would not only enable them to improve their market share but also enhance their financial performance. Costco may consider implementing initiatives that capitalize on the weakness of competitors, and/ or pursue end run offensive strategies. The stiff competition in the domestic U.S. retail industry, coupled with the maturity of the market implies that firms should focus on holding and milking their market share (Valdani & Alessandro, 2012). However, Valdani & Alessandro observes that firms may seek to improve their market share in these markets by focusing on the weaknesses of their main rivals. The SWOT matrix rank reveals that Costco is a strong company, which is able to take on their rivals head on. Nevertheless, Costco may direct its internal strength, capabilities and resources towards attacking the weaknesses of its rivals in the U.S. retail market. Costco may achieve this by going after customers whom the competitors are less equipped to serve. It may also attack those rivals offering poor customer services. Alternatively, Costco may expand into regions and market segments where their rivals are either weak or have ignored completely. Apart from capitalizing on weaknesses of their competitors, Costco may consider pursuing end run offensive strategies. The end run offensive strategies enable firms to avoid frontal and head on attacks that may escalate and produce unhealthy competition (Cullen & Praveen, 2013). With the end run strategies, Costco would be able to go around competitors, capture the market segments that are ignored by the rivals and establish the first mover advantage in these markets (Cullen & Praveen, 2013). Cullen & Praveen observes that a company may implement end run strategies in four ways. Firstly,